PLEASE READ DIRECTION CAREFULLY !!!
Assignment:
Write a four-page essay (no less than 800 words, no more than 1200) in response to the following prompt:
In this essay, which you will revise later into your final essay assignment, I would like you to think about one of the most foundational questions in ethics—whether human beings are naturally selfish (i.e., psychological egoists), naturally altruistic (i.e., ethical creatures), or whether circumstance is primarily responsible for these tendencies in a culture. Be careful with this third option because you can get lost or tangled up in it!
Note: The first paragraph of any paper should tell your reader you’re your general topic is, what question you aim to answer, what your answer to that question will be along with the reason why you think so (this is your Thesis), and finally, you should tell your reader how you will go about answering the question in the rest of the essay (This is your Organizational Statement). A good organizational statement will read like a list of the topic sentences of the rest of your essay, so it’s a good idea to write it last. Hint: this prompt contains three tasks, so your organizational statement ought to list three tasks you will complete in the course of the paper.
First, introduce the topic. I would like you to give an account of the question using at least two of the articles given below. These articles approach the question largely from an experimental point of view. Make sure to give at least two opposing views in this part, but you do not have to decide who is right just yet.
Note: When you are discussing articles or other outside texts, you need to give your reader some context. So, for instance, if I were to use the first article below, I would introduce it by saying,
As Helen Fields writes in her ScienceMag article from 2012, “Psychologists have long tried to understand why people cooperate and in which situations” (Fields).
Or, if using the second:
In his article, “Are people Naturally Inclined to Cooperate or Be Selfish”, Matthew Robinson argues that “Culture, school and parenting are important determinants of cooperation” (Robinson).
You should introduce other articles similarly as you go. The goal is to help the reader know whose view you are presenting, and where the reader can find it at all times. This means citing every article you use in the works cited. If you follow the links to other studies through the studies given below, be sure to cite them as well.
Second, using the theories we have read from the beginning of chapter 7 in Palmer, talk about the question of egoism vs. altruism from a philosophical point of view. So far, we have a few different positions you can talk about: Plato’s three-part soul, Hobbes’ psychological egoism, Utilitarianism’s overarching interest in the greatest good/pleasure. These theories are not experimental, but conceptual. They begin from observation, but go on to talk about what humans should do. Discuss at least two of these views in regard to the same question introduced in the first part.
Note: I have posted a pdf with several powerpoint slides on these theories; please use it. Be sure to explain how ethical reasoning is different from scientific experimentation at some point in your account. This might involve relating it to earlier issues such as epistemology, the belief in God, or one’s view on freedom. If you revisit any of these issues, be sure to cite where they appear in Palmer. And, be sure to be clear about the differences between these philosophical theories and the experimental ones; it is not clear that ethics is not something we can decide experimentally.
Third, using the evidence from your presentation in part one, alongside the philosophical theories from part two, tell me what you think the best answer is to the question about human nature is, as well as why it is not either of the other two possibilities. If you choose the third option (the circumstantial option), you will need to be very clear about what kinds of cultural circumstances lead to egoism or altruism (education, entertainment, religious influence, etc.). Finish by telling me how the two sets of knowledge claims (the experimental and the conceptual) work together to produce your final answer (i.e. your thesis).
Note: It is always best, in a philosophical essay to choose a definite answer over an “it depends…” type response. This is because your primary task as an author is to tell your reader what the question depends on, and give an answer in light of this. Every good essay begins with “It depends….”, but virtually no good essay concludes this way. Essays should make questions clearer through careful, organized thought. Also, never undercut your answer by saying things like “Everyone has their own opinion about this, etc.” This paper is not asking for an opinion, but for a bit of research, the presentation of different views through evidence, and choosing what you think (not feel or believe) is the best answer from among those you’ve researched. You will have the opportunity to revise this paper in a few weeks, but do you absolute best on this ‘draft’. It is worth as much as the final draft.
Articles (be sure to cite with a full works cited, using MLA, as noted in “Essay Writing for this Course”). Please work from these articles and articles they link to. Other articles you find on the topic may not be of high enough quality to cite.
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A man is ethical only when life is sacred to him. Foundational questions in ethics refer to the most fundamental and broad questions that philosophy asks about moral behavior, value, and character. According to Winch (2020), these questions are central to understanding ethics and provide a framework for ethical reasoning and decision-making. He also stated that some of the most important foundational questions in ethics include: What is the nature of morality? This question asks about morality and how it differs from other values and concepts. Some philosophers argue that morality is a set of objective and universal principles, while others believe morality is relative and dependent on cultural, social, and personal factors. Another foundational question in ethics is; What is the basis of moral obligation? This question asks what gives moral actions their binding force. Some philosophers believe that moral obligations are based on divine commands, while others argue that they stem from reason or intuition. Another foundational question in ethics is; What is the relationship between moral theory and practice? This question asks how moral theories should be applied in real-world situations. Some philosophers argue that moral theories should be prescriptive, guiding behavior, while others believe that they should be descriptive, describing how people behave. Another foundational question in ethics is; How do we determine what is morally right or wrong? This question asks how we can determine the rightness or wrongness of an action or decision. Some philosophers believe that moral reasoning is based on universal principles, while others argue that moral reasoning is more subjective and depends on personal, cultural, and social factors. Lastly, another foundational question in ethics is; What is the relationship between morality and self-interest? This question asks how moral behavior can be reconciled with individual self-interest. Some philosophers argue that morality and self-interest are mutually incompatible, while others believe they can be harmonized. This paper discusses whether humans are naturally selfish (i.e., psychological egoists), naturally altruistic (i.e., ethical creatures), or whether a circumstance is primarily responsible for these tendencies in a culture.
Some people argue that humans are inherently selfish and motivated by self-interest, while others maintain that altruism and cooperation are fundamental aspects of human nature. According to Winch (2020), On the one hand, there is evidence to suggest that humans have a strong tendency towards self-interest. Evolutionary psychologists argue that humans evolved to prioritize their survival and reproduction and that this tendency towards self-preservation is a fundamental aspect of human nature. Additionally, studies have shown that people often prioritize their needs and desires over those of others, especially when resources are limited. However, others argue that human beings are not inherently selfish and that altruistic behavior is a fundamental aspect of human nature (Winch, 2020). Anthropologists have documented cooperative behavior and altruism in various cultures and societies, suggesting that selflessness and concern for others are universal human traits. Furthermore, psychological studies have shown that humans are capable of empathy and compassion and that these emotions can drive individuals to act in the interest of others. Winch (2020) also stated that it is worth considering the role of culture and upbringing in shaping our behavior. While some may argue that human nature is fixed, others believe that social and cultural norms and values largely shape our behavior. In this view, the presence or absence of selfishness in human behavior may depend on the cultural context in which people are raised. Thus, some people argue that humans are inherently selfish and motivated by their self-interest, while others maintain that altruism and cooperation are fundamental aspects of human nature.
Some people argue that altruism is a fundamental aspect of human nature, while others maintain that self-interest and competition are more dominant forces in human behavior. According to Hanson (2021), on the one hand, there is evidence to suggest that humans are capable of altruistic behavior. Anthropologists have documented cooperative behavior and selflessness in various cultures and societies, suggesting that altruism is a universal human trait. Additionally, psychological studies have shown that humans have a capacity for empathy and compassion, which can drive individuals to act in the interest of others. Furthermore, some evolutionary theorists argue that altruism has evolved to promote the survival and success of groups and that this cooperative behavior is a fundamental aspect of human nature. However, others argue that humans are not naturally altruistic and that self-interest and competition are more dominant forces in human behavior (Hanson,2021). Evolutionary psychologists argue that humans evolved to prioritize their survival and reproduction and that this tendency towards self-preservation is a fundamental aspect of human nature. Additionally, studies have shown that people often prioritize their needs and desires over those of others, especially when resources are limited. Hanson (2021) also stated that it is worth considering the role of culture and upbringing in shaping our behavior. While some may argue that human nature is fixed, others believe that social and cultural norms and values largely shape our behavior. In this view, the presence or absence of altruism in human behavior may depend on the cultural context in which people are raised. Thus, some people argue that altruism is a fundamental aspect of human nature, while others maintain that self-interest and competition are more dominant forces in human behavior.
Some argue that external circumstances, such as upbringing, cultural norms, and socio-economic factors, primarily determine human behavior, while others believe that innate traits and personality are the primary drivers of human behavior. According to Huggins et al. (2019), on the one hand, there is evidence to suggest that external circumstances play a significant role in shaping human behavior. For example, studies have shown that individuals raised in environments characterized by scarcity and competition tend to be more selfish, while those raised in environments characterized by abundance and cooperation are more likely to exhibit altruistic behavior. Additionally, cultural norms and values can play a strong role in shaping behavior, influencing individuals to act following social expectations and norms. However, others argue that innate traits and personality are the primary drivers of human behavior (Huggins et al., 2019). Psychological research has shown that there are consistent personality traits that can predict individual behavior, including empathy, agreeableness, and openness. Furthermore, studies have shown that these traits are relatively stable over time and can significantly impact an individual’s behavior and decision-making. Huggins et al. (2019) also stated that it is worth considering that circumstances and innate traits likely interact to shape human behavior. For example, an individual with a strong innate tendency towards altruism may be further influenced by a supportive and cooperative cultural context to act even more selflessly. Thus, some argue that external circumstances primarily determine human behavior, while others believe that innate traits and personality are the primary drivers of human behavior.
The foundational questions in ethics provide a starting point for exploring moral behavior, value, and character complexities. The question of whether human beings are naturally selfish is complex and multifaceted. At the same time, there is evidence to suggest that self-interest is a fundamental aspect of human nature. Ultimately, the answer to this question may depend on the perspective and context in which it is being considered. Also, whether human beings are naturally altruistic is complex and multifaceted. At the same time, there is evidence to suggest that altruism is a fundamental aspect of human nature. Ultimately, the answer to this question may depend on the perspective and context in which it is being considered. Also, whether circumstances or innate traits are primarily responsible for human behavior is complex and multifaceted. Both external circumstances and innate characteristics likely play a role in shaping human behavior. The precise impact of each may depend on the individual and the context in which the behavior is being observed. Ultimately, the answer to this question will likely be a combination of circumstances and innate traits. The relative importance of each may vary depending on the specific behavior being considered. By examining these questions, we can gain a deeper understanding of the nature of morality and how it influences our lives and the world around us.
Hansson, S. O. (2021). The ethics of explanation. BMC Medical Ethics, 22(1), 1-9.
Huggins, R., & Thompson, P. (2019). The behavioral foundations of urban and regional development: Culture, psychology, and agency. Journal of Economic Geography, 19(1), 121-146. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbx040
Winch, P. (2020). Ethics and action. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003051138