Anatomy and Physiology study guide

Unit 4: Integumentary System

1. Identify the structures of the integumentary system and describe their functions. (See Modules 7 and 8.)

1. Describe the layers of the skin, what is found in each layer, and the function of each layer. (See Module 8.)

Describe how the integumentary system responds to changes in temperature. (See Module 8.)

Unit 5: Skeletal System

1. Identify and describe the function of the structures of the skeletal system, including those of the spinal column. Include the major bones and their locations. (See Module 10.)

1. Describe cartilage. (See Module 10.)

1. Describe the process of endochondral ossification. (See Module 10.)

1. Describe the function of bone marrow. (See Module 11.)

Unit 6: Muscular System

1. Describe the following structures, including their functions. (See Module 13.)

1. Sarcolemma

1. Sarcomere

1. Sarcoplasmic reticulum

1. T-tubules

1. Define the following terms. (See Module 13.)

1. Tendon

1. Ligament

1. Aponeurosis

1. Describe the process of muscle contraction. In your description, include the role of the following substances. (See Module 13.)

1. Actin

1. Myosin

1. Calcium

1. Tropomyosin

1. Troponin

Unit 6: Muscular System (continued)

1. Describe a neuromuscular junction. In your description, answer the following questions. (See Module 14.)

3. Which cell releases the neurotransmitter?

0. Which part of the cell releases the neurotransmitter?

3. What is the neurotransmitter released at a neuromuscular junction?

3. Which cell receives the neurotransmitter?

2. Which part of this cell receives the neurotransmitter?

1. Complete the following muscle table. In the second column, add the name of the attached joint and movement. In the third column, identify the antagonist muscle. An example has been provided in the first two rows. (See Module 14.)

Muscle Name	Joint and movement	Antagonist
Pectoralis major	Example: Shoulder flexion	Example: Deltoid
Deltoid	Example: Shoulder extension	Example: Pectoralis major
Biceps brachii, brachialis
Triceps brachii
Flexor carpi radiaolis, flexor caprpi ulnaris
Extensor carpi radialis
Flexor digitorum profundus
Extensor digitorum
Iliopsoas
Gluteus maximus
Hamstring group- biceps femoris, semimembranosus, and semitendinosus
Quadriceps group- rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus intermedius
Tibialis anterior
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Flexor digitorum longus
Extensor digitorum longus

1. Differentiate skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles. Include the following information for each muscle type. (See Module 14.)

0. Is the muscle under voluntary or involuntary control?

0. What is the function of the muscle?

0. Describe the cellular characteristics. ( e.g., striated, non-striated, multinucleated, one nucleus, etc.)

0. Include an example of each muscle type.

Unit 7: Nervous System

1. Distinguish between the central and peripheral nervous systems. (See Module 15.)

1. Name the parts of a neuron. Note: Label the images on the page. (See Module 16.)

1. State the function and location of the myelin sheath. (See Module 16.)

1. List the different kinds of glial cells and describe the function of each. (See Module 16.)

5. What is a synapse? Define the following parts of a synapse. (See Module 16.)

1. Pre-synaptic cell

1. Post-synaptic cell

1. Synaptic cleft

1. Neurotransmitters

1. Axon terminals

1. Dendrites

1. Action potential

Unit 7: Nervous System (continued)

6. Study and label the pons, medulla, spinal cord, pituitary and midbrain on the following images. (See Module 17.)

7. Describe the role of cerebrospinal fluid. Identify its location and the source. (See Module 17.)

Unit 7: Nervous System (continued)

8. Describe the meninges, their importance, and where they are located. (See Module 17.)

9. Study the following image. (See Module 17.)

10. State the function and location of the following brain regions. (See Modules 16 and 17.)

1. Pons

1. Cerebellum

1. Cerebrum

1. Medulla oblongata

1. Thalamus

1. Hypothalamus

11. State the location and function of the four lobes of the cerebrum. (See Module 17.)

1. Frontal

1. Parietal

1. Occipital

1. Temporal

12. Label and be familiar with this image. (See Module 17.)

Unit 7: Nervous System (continued)

13. Identify the parts of the spinal cord and describe how they relate to afferent and efferent information flow in the nervous system. (See Module 17.)

14. Study the image below. Identify the body parts innervated by each region of the spinal cord. (See Module 17.)

15. Label and describe the function of dorsal and ventral parts of the spinal cord. (See Module 17.)

Unit 7: Nervous System (continued)

16. Identify the function of each of the 12 cranial nerves, and study the following image. (See Module 18.)

17. What is the parasympathetic nervous system and when is it active? (See Module 18.)

18. What is the sympathetic nervous system and when is it active? (See Module 18.)

Unit 8: Sensory System

1. Trace the path of light through the eye from the cornea to the retina. (See Module 20.)

1. Complete the “Functions of the Retina” activity in the Acrobatiq learning resource. (See Module 20.)

1. Describe the function of the following parts of the eye. (See Module 20.)

1. Cornea

1. Lens

1. Retina

1. Vitreous humor

1. Aqueous humor

1. Lens

1. Pupil

Unit 8: Sensory System (continued)

4. Study the following image. (See Module 20.)

5. State the function and location of photoreceptors. (See Module 20.)

6. Trace the pathway of signal propagation from stimulus to response, using the following stimuli.

Visual: (See Module 20.)

16. How does information about light get from the eye to the brain?

16. What part of the brain processes visual information?

Auditory: (See Module 21.)

16. How does information about sound get from the ear to the brain?

16. Describe the role of hair cells in this process.

16. What part of the brain processes auditory information?

Vestibular (balance): (See Module 21.)

Briefly discuss the role of the semicircular canals in balance, making sure to define the following structures and functions.

16. Utricle

16. Saccule

16. Static equilibrium

16. Dynamic equilibrium

Olfactory (smell): (See Module 22.)

16. How does information about smell get from the ear to the brain?

16. What part of the brain processes olfactory information?

Note: please make sure to label the image of the anatomy of the structures involved in smell on the page.

Unit 10: Endocrine System

1. For each of the major endocrine glands, state the hormone(s) produced and its function. (See Module 25.)

1. Anterior pituitary

1. Posterior pituitary

1. Thyroid

1. Parathyroid

1. Thymus

1. Adrenal cortex

1. Adrenal medulla

1. Pancreas

1. Ovaries

1. Testes

1. Pineal

1. For each of the following hormones, state when they would be stimulated and when they would be inhibited. (See Module 25.)

1. Growth hormone

1. Thyroid-stimulating hormone

1. Thyroxine & triiodothyronine

1. Calcitonin

1. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

1. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

1. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

1. Prolactin

1. Oxytocin

1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

1. Thymosin

1. Aldosterone

1. Cortisol

1. Epinephrine/norepinephrine

1. Insulin

1. Glucagon

1. Progesterone

1. Estrogen

1. Testosterone

1. Give one example for each of the three methods of negative feedback-based hormone control. (See Module 27.)

1. Humoral

1. Hormonal

1. Neural

1. Unit 11: Lymphatic System

1. Describe the function of the lymphatic system. (See Module 26.)

2. Identify and describe the function of the following lymphatic structures, including their location. (See Module 27.)

1. Thymus gland

1. Spleen

1. Tonsils

1. Lymph nodes

1. Lymph vessels

1. Red bone marrow

3. Describe the flow of lymph, and define the following structures. (See Module 27.)

0. a. Lymphatic capillaries

1. b. Lymphatic vessels

1. c. Lymph node

1. d. Lymphatic duct

1. e. Valve

1. f. Subclavian vein

4. Explain how histamine affects the body. (See Module 28.)

Unit 12: Cardiovascular System

1. Name the structures of the heart (including the four valves). What are their functions? (See Module 30.)

2. What is the function of the sinoatrial (SA) node? (See Modules 29 and 31.)

3. Name the layers of the heart. What is the function of the layers? (See Module 30.)

4. Trace the pathway of blood starting and ending with the left ventricle. (See Module 30.) Include the following in your pathway:

1. a. Indicate whether the blood is deoxygenated or oxygenated in the structure. (ie.eg., blood in the right ventricle is deoxygenated).

1. b. Chambers of the heart

1. c. Valves of the heart

1. d. Blood vessels of the pulmonary circuit (i.e., where does oxygenation occur?)

1. e. Specific major blood vessels attached to the heart (e.g., superior and inferior vena cava, aorta)

1. f. General blood vessels of the systemic circuit (e.g., venules, capillaries, etc.)

Unit 13: Respiratory System

1. Sketch and identify the structures of the respiratory system and describe their functions. Include structures involved in air breathed in from the nose and mouth. (See Modules 32 and 33.)

1. Trace the pathway of air inhaled through the nose. (See Modules 32 and 33.)

1. Trace the pathway of air inhaled through the mouth. (See Modules 32 and 33.)

1. Describe the layers of the trachea. (See Module 32.)

1. Identify the parts of the lungs and describe their functions.? (See Module 32.)

1. Describe the process of ventilation. (See Module 33.)

1. Describe the process of internal respiration. (See Module 33.)

1. Describe the process of external respiration, including the structures relevant to gas exchanges in the lungs. (See Module 33.)

Unit 14: Digestive System

1. Describe the process of chemical digestion and give an example of chemical digestion. (See Module 37.)

1. Complete the table of the major digestive organs. In the second column, describe the function. In the third column identify digestive substances add to the organ during digestion (e.g. hydrochloric acid, salivary amylase, bacteria, etc.). In the fourth column, describe the consistency of food in the structure or organ (e.g. liquid, solid, chyme, bolus, etc.). (See Modules 35,36 and 37.)

Structure	Function	Digestive substance added, if any	Consistency of food
Oral cavity (mouth)
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine: duodenum
Small intestine: jejunum
Small Intestine: ileum
Large intestine: cecum
Large intestine: appendix
Large intestine: colon
Large intestine: rectum

3. Review the following image. (See Module 37.)

4. Describe the location and function of the following valves and sphincters. (See Modules 36 and 37.)

a. Cardioesophageal (lower esophageal) sphincter

b. Pyloric sphincter

c. Ileocecal valve

d. Rectal valve

e. Internal anal sphincter

f. External anal sphincter

5. What is the function of the bacteria in the large intestine? (See Module 36.)

Unit 14: Digestive System (continued)

1. Trace the pathway of food from ingestion to excretion. Refer to the table of the major digestive organs. (See Modules 36 and 37.)

1. Complete the table of the accessory digestive organs. In the second column, describe their function. In the third column, list the substances produced by that organ, if it produces a substance. (See Modules 36 and 37.)

Organ	Function	Substances produced, if any
Salivary glands
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas

3. Complete the digestion and absorption table. The first column lists the substance. In the second column, describe where and how the substance is digested. In the third column, identify where the substance is absorbed. If the location is the small intestine or large intestine, specify the part of the intestine where it occurs. (See Module 37.)

Substance	Digestion of: (where and how)	Absorbed in:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Vitamins
Water
Electrolytes (minerals)

Unit 16: Renal System

1. Sketch, identify and describe the function of the following structures of the renal system: kidneys, ureter, urethra, and bladder. Note the position of these structures relative to the other organs of the abdomen. (See Modules 38 and 39.)

1. Discuss the structure and function of the following parts of the kidney: renal medulla, renal cortex, minor and major calyces, renal pelvis, renal sinus, nephron. (See Module 39.)

1. Trace the pathway of urine formation and excretion from the body. (See Modules 39 and 40.)

1. Describe the process of urine formation in the nephron. (See Modules 39 and 40.)

Unit 17: Reproductive System

1. State the function and location of the following male reproductive organs. (See Module 42.) (Tip: try to note their location in relation to other abdominal organs using directional terms.)

0. Testes (seminiferous tubules, Sertoli cells, interstitial cells)

0. Vas dDeferens

0. Epididymis

0. Ejaculatory duct

0. Urethra

1. State the function of the following reproductive hormones in the male. (See Module 42.)

1. Testosterone

1. FSH

1. Inhibin

1. Trace the pathway of sperm maturation and storage. Describe how sperm move from one part of the reproductive tract to another. (See Module 42.)

1. What is the composition of semen? (See Module 42.)

1. State the function and location of the following female reproductive organs. (See Modules 41 and 43.) (Tip: try to note their location in relation to other abdominal organs using directional terms)

4. Ovaries

4. Fallopian tubes

4. Uterus: (bBody, fFundus, cCervix,; eEndometrium, mMyometrium, pPerimetrium)

4. Vagina

Unit 17: Reproductive System (continued)

1. Trace the pathway of an oocyte (unfertilized). (See Module 43.)

1. Trace the pathway of a zygote from the site of fertilization to implantation. (See Module 43.)

1. State the function of the following reproductive hormones in the female (See Module 43.)

7. Estrogen

7. Progesterone

7. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

7. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

1. What hormones regulate the ovarian cycle? When would levels of these hormones be highest? (See Module 43.)

1. Describe the process of fertilization. How long does it take fertilization to occur? (See Module 43.)